Even as early as 1993, the rise of dual-income households was being correlated with the decline of volunteerism in local school districts. The initial studies focused primarily on the lack of working-aged women volunteering due to increased employment rates and changes in parental roles. As volunteering continues to decline, more recent articles and studies are indicating the decline is attributed to financial stress in general. As a result, parents are less and less available to chaperone field trips or assist with school programs and activities.